How Do We Know What's Right and Wrong?
By Steven B. Sherman, Richard A. Holland, Gary S. Osmundsen, and Peter J. Rasor II
How do we know what is good or evil, right or wrong? This question is complex, and the answer is likely to be multifaceted. Still, in considering a theological approach to ethics, it will be essential to focus in on the idea of revelation. By revelation, we mean that God has used a variety of means to reveal moral truth to us, and through this revelation we can acquire moral knowledge.
Traditionally, revelation has been divided into two broad categories: general revelation and special revelation. General revelation usually refers to the fact that moral truth is a built-in feature of the created universe, which means that we can simply observe right and wrong, good and evil in the world around us. This revelation is called “general” because it is the revelation of reality and truth to everyone. There are at least two components of this. First, there is the idea that moral qualities are contained within the universe itself. Second, God has made humans to be the kinds of creatures who are able to perceive the moral features of the universe and recognize them as moral.
If God is the creator of everything, as Christians and other theists assert, then the common phrase, “all truth is God’s truth,” is clearly correct, and this must include moral truths. So we ought to expect to find some instances of near universal consensus on a moral issue. Because God is the loving and wise creator, we should anticipate signposts of objective morality to be pervasive in our world. And we do see such signposts . . . [V]irtually everyone agrees that torturing innocent infants just for the fun of it is wrong and evil. Also, just about everyone will also agree that saving a child from running into the street and getting hit by a car is right and good. These kinds of examples provide strong evidence for a general revelation of moral truths existing in our God-designed world. This evidence does not necessitate either total unanimous agreement or absolute certainty. There always will be arguments—however strong or weak—made for and against every moral view, and our own finite nature and imperfections will always keep us from knowing moral truth perfectly. But the moral evidence we see does provide good reasons and plausibility for divinely designed morality.
While general revelation is available to everyone, special revelation usually refers to moral principles, standards, and commands that have been directly revealed to specific people at specific times. From a Christian perspective, the Bible is God’s revelation of truth to human beings, and that includes moral truth. For simplicity’s sake, we can summarize this by saying that God has given us specific moral commands in Scripture. Since morality is founded on God’s perfect moral nature, we thus have a moral duty to obey these commands.
From a Christian perspective, God’s commands are not arbitrary and therefore morality must be based on something more fundamental than the commands themselves. Instead . . . God’s very nature stands as the ultimate foundation for all moral values and duties, and that is what serves as the foundation of God’s commands. When God commands, “Do not commit murder,” this command does not serve as the ultimate foundation for why it is wrong to commit murder, nor is it merely arbitrary. Rather, an aspect of God’s nature serves as its foundation. When God issues a command, the command is consistent with his nature. God isn’t simply deciding that murder is wrong, as if he could have decided that murder is not wrong. Rather, murder is wrong because it goes against God’s nature, and then he decides to issue moral directives that comport with his nature. Thus, God’s commands always arise out of his perfectly good moral nature rather than being arbitrary decisions of his will.
In contrast to what we have been saying so far about ethical foundations, some non-Christian theistic systems may attempt to ground all moral values and duties exclusively in God’s commands. This is sometimes called voluntarism, which generally refers to any system of philosophy that considers the will as the central or most important aspect. Applied to theological ethics, voluntarism would say that nothing is more fundamental than God’s will. If this were correct, the only thing that would make murder wrong is that God issued a command prohibiting murder, and had he not issued that command, then murder would not be wrong. Likewise, voluntarists think that God could have decided that adultery, theft, or torture are good and that loving one’s neighbor, feeding the poor, or caring for the environment are evil. As suggested, voluntarism (at least as we have described it here) is not compatible with some core features of the Christian perspective on moral philosophy. For example, based on the biblical evidence, Christians believe that God is love. If this is correct, it would be impossible for God to require hate and forbid love, for to do so would be for God to contradict his nature. This is impossible; therefore it cannot be true that God’s commands serve as the ultimate foundation for good and evil, right and wrong. Rather, God’s character and nature are more fundamental. God’s commands arise from and are always founded on God’s perfectly good moral character.
Besides moral commands in the Bible, Christians believe that God has also revealed moral truth in the person and work of Jesus Christ. Based on biblical teaching, Christians believe that Jesus Christ is one of the three persons of the triune God. Thus, Jesus is God “in the flesh,” and Jesus’ entire life, ministry, and moral conduct is a revelation of the perfectly good moral nature of God. This means that Jesus’ life serves as a perfect moral example to which we can aspire, and his teachings represent a perfect revelation of moral truth.
— Steven B. Sherman is associate professor of philosophy at Grand Canyon University (Phoenix, AZ). Steve has taught philosophy, apologetics, ethics, theology, hermeneutics, and world religion courses at both undergraduate and graduate levels. He and his wife Lynn enjoy being desert dwellers and bi-coastal travelers, regularly visiting family, friends, and national parks.
— Richard A. Holland, Jr. is currently serving as assistant professor of philosophy at Grand Canyon University. Since 2008, Rich has taught various courses including philosophy of religion, ethics, epistemology, and Christian apologetics at the undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate levels, at both public and private universities. He and his family live in Goodyear, Arizona.
— Gary S. Osmundsen is a professor of philosophy at Grand Canyon University. Since 2008, he has taught various undergraduate courses in philosophy—specifically, logic, introduction to philosophy, critical reasoning, ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology. He and his wife Julie live in Phoenix, Arizona, with their four children.
— Peter J. Rasor II is presently the Senior Pastor of Lilburn Christian Church in Lilburn, GA, and teaches philosophy adjunctly at Grand Canyon University (Phoenix, AZ) and Bethel University (Mishawaka, IN). He previously served as assistant professor of philosophy at Grand Canyon University (2015-2023). He is co-author of Controversy of the Ages (2017) and author of the fantasy novel The Plague of Kosmon: Rise of the Seer.
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Excerpted from An Introduction to Philosophy: A Christian Guide to the Things that Really Matter by Steven B. Sherman, Richard A. Holland Jr., Gary S. Osmundsen, and Peter J. Rasor II (Zondervan Academic, 2025). Used by permission.
Designed for students in Christian colleges and seminaries, An Introduction to Philosophy surveys the four main areas of philosophy—logic, metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics—in an accessible and engaging manner. Yet, it also covers important topics sometimes left unaddressed in introductions, including:
why philosophy matters in our day
critical thinking and intellectual virtue
a brief history of philosophy
philosophical hermeneutics
the relationship between philosophy, faith, and worldview
religious epistemology
bioethics, sexual ethics, other types of ethics
a Christian philosophy of life
Grounded in the Christian intellectual tradition, each chapter in An Introduction to Philosophy includes student-friendly features such as chapter summaries, explanatory sidebars, reflection questions, vocabulary words and definitions, and suggestions for further reading. Professors and students will find it to be a broad and useful overview, perfect for undergraduate and seminary students alike.
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— Gregory E. Ganssle, Biola University
“...Powerful demonstration of how faith and philosophy go together.”
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