Second-Century Apologists
By Michael J. Kruger
Both the political and intellectual persecution of Christianity in the second century gave rise to a distinctive type of Christian literature. . . [M]ost Christian literature was written for the believing community—theological treatises, exhortational letters, and even apocryphal writings. In these writings, argues Oscar Skarsaune, “you speak about the world outside the Church rather than to it.” But apologetic writings were different. They were unique because they were written primarily to engage non-Christian thinking (regardless of who actually read the work). Apologetic writings were designed to accomplish many tasks; e.g., to overturn caricatures and misrepresentations, to defend against false accusations, to explain controversial beliefs and doctrines, and to plead for tolerance and fair treatment from governing officials. But such works were not only defensive. Apologists would also go on the offensive, demonstrating that pagan philosophies and religions were problematic, irrational, and the foundation for immoral behavior.
Although Christian apologetic activity certainly continued throughout the life of the early Church, the selective survey of apologists below will indicate that the second century was clearly the “golden age” of apologetics. It was a time when the infant Church was especially vulnerable and a time when the persecution was particularly pointed. This reminds us that apologetics is a reactionary enterprise—it exists as a response to the cultural, political and intellectual environment in which Christianity lives.
Quadratus and Aristides
Eusebius informs us of the apologies of Quadratus and Aristides, which are probably two of Christianity's earliest apologetic works. Both presented their works to Emperor Hadrian around AD 125—the first of many appeals to Roman emperors by Christian apologists. Of course, most apologetic treatises had very little chance of actually being read by the emperor; and even less of a chance of receiving an answer. Regardless, addressing an apologetic work to the emperor was an effective rhetorical device designed to call attention to political and civil issues that were affecting Christian communities.
We know very little about Quadratus, but his apology was popular enough that Eusebius informs us that by his day “It is still extant among many of the brethren and we have a copy ourselves.” The rationale for the work is what we would expect; Quadratus composes “a defense (ἀπολογίαν) for our religion because some wicked men were trying to trouble the Christians.” Eusebius then records the only known excerpt from Quadratus:
Our Savior's deeds were always present, for they were true. Those healed or risen from the dead did not just appear as healed or risen but were always present, not just while the Savior visited us but even when he went away; they remained for a long time so that some of them even reached our own time.
Quadratus appears to be defending the validity of Christ's miracles by pointing out that they weren't done in such a fashion that people only appeared healed or risen, but the miracles were real enough that healed/risen people survived even till “our own time.” It is difficult to know exactly what claims Quadratus is responding to, but it is possible that he is contrasting the quality of Jesus' miracles with that of other (perhaps gnostic) miracle workers.
Aristides was an Athenian philosopher who was converted to Christ and yet continued to wear “his philosopher's garb.” His full Apology survives only in Syriac (although there is an abbreviated Greek version embedded within an eighth-century Greek novel, Barlaam and Josaphat). Aristides begins his treatise by offering a thorough explanation of the Christian doctrine of God, laying out the divine characteristics and attributes. Then he proceeds to contrast the Christian God with the gods of the Barbarians, Greeks and Egyptians. His analysis is impressive in its scope and depth— perhaps not surprising given his philosophical learning—and one of the very first critical comparisons between Christianity and other religions. The Barbarians effectively are pantheists, argues Aristides, and thus foolishly worship the earth. The Greek gods, Aristides demonstrates, have attributes that are all too human and fallible, even engaging in adultery and murder themselves. And the Egyptians just worship animals, not realizing that “they daily witness their gods being eaten and consumed by men.”
Towards the end of his treatise, Aristides links the Christian God to the God of Judaism, acknowledging that “as we learned from their writings they [the Jews] have come nearer to truth and genuine knowledge than the rest of the nations.” However, Aristides faults the Jews for denying Christ and, in turn, offers one of the most succinct descriptions of early Christian beliefs about Jesus:
The Christians, then, trace the beginning of their religion from Jesus the Messiah; and he is named the Son of God Most High. And it is said that God came down from heaven, and from a Hebrew virgin assumed and clothed himself with flesh; and the Son of God lived in a daughter of man. This is taught in the gospel, as it is called, which a short time was preached among them; and you also if you will read therein, may perceive the power which belongs to it. This Jesus, then, was born of the race of the Hebrews; and he had twelve disciples in order that the purpose of his incarnation might in time be accomplished. But he himself was pierced by the Jews, and he died and was buried; and they say that after three days he rose and ascended to heaven.
This statement confirms that many core beliefs of Christianity were already well established, such as the divinity of Jesus (“God came down from heaven”), the Incarnation (“clothed himself with flesh”), virgin birth (“from a Hebrew virgin”), and, of course, his death, resurrection and Ascension.
— Dr. Michael J. Kruger serves as the President and Samuel C. Patterson Professor of New Testament and Early Christianity at the Charlotte campus of Reformed Theological Seminary. He is the author of eleven books, most recently Surviving Religion 101: Letters to a Christian Student on Keeping the Faith in College (Crossway, 2021).
*Excerpted from Michael J. Kruger, Christianity at the Crossroads: How the Second Century Shaped the Future of the Church (IVP Academic, 2018). Find it at InterVarsity Press, Amazon, and other major booksellers.
Image by Günther Simmermacher from Pixabay
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